LITHUANIANGRAMMAR

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Lithuanian Pronunciation

Contemporary Standard Lithuanian uses a 32-letter Latin-based alphabet. The alphabet includes several letters with diacritics that represent sounds or historical spelling distinctions essential to correct Lithuanian writing. The letters q, w, and x do not belong to the traditional Lithuanian alphabet, although they may appear in foreign names, trademarks, abbreviations, and other material preserved in its original spelling.

The complete alphabet is:

a – akis (eye)
ą – ąžuolas (oak)
b – brolis (brother)
c – centras (center)
č – čia (here)
d – diena (day)
e – ežeras (lake)
ę – tęsti (to continue)
ė – ėriukas (lamb)
f – filmas (film)
g – gatvė (street)
h – himnas (anthem)
i – ilgas (long)
į – įdomus (interesting)
y – yla (awl)
j – jūra (sea)
k – kalba (language)
l – laikas (time)
m – miestas (city)
n – namas (house)
o – oras (air; weather)
p – pienas (milk)
r – rytas (morning)
s – saulė (sun)
š – šalis (country)
t – tėvas (father)
u – upė (river)
ų – mūsų (our)
ū – ūgis (height)
v – vanduo (water)
z – zebras (zebra)
ž – žmogus (person)

The letter ų normally does not occur at the beginning of ordinary Lithuanian words, so mūsų (our) illustrates the letter inside a word rather than initially.

Lithuanian spelling is relatively systematic. A learner who understands vowel length, consonant softness, and the principal letter-sound relationships can usually pronounce an unfamiliar written word with reasonable accuracy. Stress is the major element that cannot normally be predicted from spelling alone.

Lithuanian Letters and Their Names

Most Lithuanian letters have familiar alphabetic shapes, but the letters with diacritics have conventional descriptive names. The four historically nasal letters ą, ę, į, and ų are commonly identified with the word nosinė (nasal). Thus ą may be referred to as a nosinė, ę as e nosinė, and so on.

Syllables and Syllabification

Every Lithuanian syllable contains a syllabic nucleus, normally a vowel, diphthong, or another sequence functioning as a single vowel-like center.

Simple examples include:

va-sa-ra
summer

Lie-tu-va
Lithuania

duo-na
bread

pie-nas
milk

In duona, uo belongs to one syllable. In pienas, ie likewise forms one syllable.

A long vowel is still one syllabic nucleus. Thus a word containing ū does not gain an additional syllable merely because the vowel is long.

Written i used as a palatalization marker also does not create an independent syllable:

liū-tas
lion

The i indicates the softness of l, while ū forms the vowel nucleus.

Accurate syllabification is useful for three reasons: it improves pronunciation, it helps learners understand stress placement, and it is essential for understanding Lithuanian pitch accent, which applies to stressed syllables rather than isolated letters.

1.24 Word Stress

Lithuanian has free stress. This means that the stressed syllable is not fixed to a particular position in every word.

Stress may occur near the beginning:

moteris
woman

in the middle of longer words, or near the end:

Lietuva
Lithuania

The exact position must often be learned together with the word.

Ordinary Lithuanian writing does not normally mark stress. A written word therefore usually does not tell the learner which syllable is stressed.

Stress is also mobile. When a word is inflected, the stressed syllable may remain on the stem or move to an ending depending on the accentual pattern of the word.

This applies especially to nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. It is therefore useful to learn important grammatical forms with their pronunciation rather than assuming that stress always remains on the same syllable.

Stress affects more than loudness. It interacts with vowel duration, vowel quality, and, in long syllables, pitch accent.

Intonation in Statements, Questions and Commands

Intonation organizes spoken Lithuanian above the level of the individual word. It helps signal whether an utterance is complete, interrogative, emphatic, unfinished, or directive.

A neutral statement normally ends with a falling intonation:

Rūta gyvena Vilniuje.
Rūta lives in Vilnius.

The fall signals that the statement is complete.

A yes–no question frequently has a rising or otherwise clearly interrogative contour:

Ar Rūta gyvena Vilniuje?
Does Rūta live in Vilnius?

The particle ar explicitly marks the clause as a yes–no question, while intonation reinforces its interrogative function.

Information questions contain an interrogative word such as kas (who; what), kur (where), kada (when), kodėl (why), or kaip (how):

Kur gyvena Rūta?
Where does Rūta live?

Because the interrogative meaning is already expressed by kur, the final contour does not have to reproduce the same rise associated with a simple yes–no question. Such questions often end with a falling or falling-dominant contour.

Commands commonly use a firm falling intonation:

Ateik čia.
Come here.

The same grammatical form can sound more neutral, urgent, polite, or emphatic depending on sentence melody and voice quality.

Compare:

Palauk.
Wait.

Prašau, palaukite.
Please wait.

Intonation works together with grammatical form, particles, vocabulary, and context. It does not replace them.

Lists and unfinished clauses can use a continuing contour to indicate that more information is coming:

Nupirkau duonos, pieno, sūrio ir vaisių.
I bought bread, milk, cheese, and fruit.

The voice tends to remain non-final after the earlier items and reaches a clearer final contour only at the end of the complete utterance.

Lithuanian Nouns

A Lithuanian noun names a person, animal, object, substance, place, event, state, quality, or abstract concept.

Examples include:

žmogus
person

katė
cat

stalas
table

vanduo
water

miestas
city

susitikimas
meeting

ramybė
peace; calm

Most Lithuanian nouns have three major grammatical properties:

• gender;

• number;

• case.

Gender is an inherent property of the noun. Number distinguishes singular and plural. Case changes according to the grammatical function of the noun in a sentence.

For example:

namas
house

namo
of the house

namui
to the house

namą
house, as direct object

namai
houses

The noun remains lexically the same, but its ending changes.

The nominative singular is normally used as the dictionary form. For plural-only nouns, the nominative plural serves as the citation form.

Masculine and Feminine Gender

Lithuanian has two noun genders:

• masculine;

• feminine.

Examples of masculine nouns include:

vyras
man

berniukas
boy

stalas
table

kelias
road

sūnus
son

Examples of feminine nouns include:

moteris
woman

mergaitė
girl

knyga
book

gatvė
street

sesuo
sister

Gender is grammatical. It applies to nouns referring to inanimate objects as well as people and animals.

For example:

stalas
table

is masculine, whereas:

knyga
book

is feminine.

Gender affects agreement with adjectives, pronouns, participles, and certain numerals:

didelis stalas
large table

didelė knyga
large book

The endings of the agreeing word reveal the gender of the noun.

Grammatical and Natural Gender

With nouns referring to people and many animals, grammatical gender often corresponds to biological sex.

For example:

tėvas
father

is masculine, while:

motina
mother

is feminine.

Similarly:

brolis
brother

sesuo
sister

However, grammatical gender is a property of the noun itself and is not determined solely by meaning.

Compare:

dėdė
uncle

Although it ends in -ė, an ending strongly associated with feminine nouns, dėdė is masculine because it refers to a male person and behaves grammatically as masculine.

Agreement confirms this:

mano geras dėdė
my good uncle

The adjective geras is masculine.

Natural gender and grammatical gender therefore often reinforce each other, but noun endings and lexical tradition remain important.

Common-Gender Uses

A limited group of Lithuanian nouns can refer to either a male or a female person while retaining one lexical form. Their actual reference is shown by context and, in some cases, by agreement.

Such nouns frequently describe a person's behavior, character, or social type rather than a neutral profession.

For example, a noun may grammatically resemble an -a noun while referring to a person of either sex.

In these situations, semantic reference can influence agreement:

Tas žmogus yra tikras nenuorama.
That person is a real restless person.

The exact agreement pattern depends on the noun and sentence structure.

These nouns should be learned individually because they do not form a single fully regular class comparable to ordinary masculine -as or feminine -a nouns.

The important principle is that noun ending and real-world sex do not always correspond mechanically.

Singular Number

The singular normally refers to one countable entity:

namas
house

žmogus
person

knyga
book

It is also used with mass and abstract nouns:

vanduo
water

cukrus
sugar

meilė
love

A singular noun takes singular agreement:

senas namas
old house

nauja knyga
new book

A singular subject normally combines with a third-person verb form that is also used with plural subjects:

Studentas dirba.
The student works.

Because Lithuanian third-person verbs do not distinguish number, the number of the subject is shown primarily by the noun and any agreeing words.

Plural Number

The plural refers primarily to more than one countable entity.

Examples:

namai
houses

studentai
students

knygos
books

gatvės
streets

The plural form depends on the noun's declension.

Lithuanian Cases

Lithuanian nouns, adjectives, pronouns, participles, and many numerals change form according to case. Case marks the grammatical role of a word or phrase and often expresses relationships that are conveyed by word order or prepositions in less highly inflected languages.

Contemporary Standard Lithuanian has seven principal cases:

Nominative

subject, naming, some predicative uses

Genitive

possession, quantity, negation, source, various prepositional uses

Dative

recipient, beneficiary, experiencer

Accusative

direct object, direction, duration and certain time expressions

Instrumental

means, accompaniment, manner, certain predicative uses

Locative

location and certain time expressions

Vocative

direct address

These functions are only starting points. Each case has a broader range of uses, and individual verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and constructions can require a particular case.

The Nominative Case

The nominative is the basic citation form of most Lithuanian nouns. It is the form generally used in dictionaries and vocabulary lists.

Examples include:

namas
house

knyga
book

moteris
woman

sūnus
son

The nominative is used primarily for the subject of a finite clause:

Jonas dirba Vilniuje.
Jonas works in Vilnius.

It is also used in naming and identification:

Tai mano sesuo.
That is my sister.

The nominative can appear in predicative constructions, especially when the complement identifies or classifies the subject rather than describing a temporary role or state.

Because Lithuanian has rich case morphology, the nominative should not be interpreted merely as the first word in a sentence. A nominative phrase can appear in several positions depending on information structure.

The Genitive Case

The genitive is one of the most functionally diverse Lithuanian cases.

It commonly expresses:

• possession;

• source;

• absence;

• quantity;

• partitive meaning;

• objects of certain verbs;

• objects under negation;

• complements of many prepositions.

Examples include:

Jono automobilis
Jonas's car

stiklinė vandens
a glass of water

Laukiu autobuso.
I am waiting for the bus.

Neturiu laiko.
I do not have time.

The genitive therefore cannot be reduced to the meaning of. Its function depends on the construction in which it appears.

Many Lithuanian verbs govern the genitive directly:

laukti draugo
to wait for a friend

bijoti šuns
to be afraid of a dog

These combinations should be learned together with the case they require.

The Dative Case

The dative commonly marks a recipient, beneficiary, experiencer, or person affected by a situation.

Examples include:

Daviau knygą Tomui.
I gave Tomas a book.

Nupirkau vaikui dovaną.
I bought a gift for the child.

Man šalta.
I am cold.

The dative forms of several common noun types include:

Nominative

Dative

studentas

studentui

knyga

knygai

gatvė

gatvei

širdis

širdžiai

sūnus

sūnui

The dative is particularly important because Lithuanian frequently uses it to mark a person whose state or experience is expressed impersonally.

The Instrumental Case

The instrumental has several major functions. It can indicate:

• means or instrument;

• accompaniment with su;

• manner;

• route or path in certain expressions;

• predicative roles and states.

Examples:

Rašau rašikliu.
I am writing with a pen.

Važiuoju traukiniu.
I am traveling by train.

Kalbu su gydytoju.
I am speaking with the doctor.

The instrumental forms of common noun patterns include:

Nominative

Instrumental

studentas

studentu

knyga

knyga

gatvė

gatve

širdis

širdimi

sūnus

sūnumi

The instrumental does not always require a preposition. Many means and manner expressions use the bare instrumental.

The Locative Case

The locative primarily expresses location within or at a place.

Examples:

Vilniuje
in Vilnius

namuose
at home; in the house

mokykloje
at school; in the school

Lietuvoje
in Lithuania

The locative is normally used without a preposition.

Compare:

Gyvenu Kaune.
I live in Kaunas.

Dirbu ligoninėje.
I work in a hospital.

Vaikai yra kambaryje.
The children are in the room.

The locative may also occur in certain temporal expressions.

Its singular endings vary by declension, while the plural commonly contains -se:

namuose
in the houses

gatvėse
in the streets

širdyse
in the hearts

Case Selection and Syntactic Function

Lithuanian case selection is governed by several interacting principles. The most important are syntactic function, lexical government, negation, quantity, prepositions, and semantic interpretation.

A direct object of an affirmative transitive verb is commonly accusative:

Skaitau knygą.
I am reading a book.

Under negation, the same object commonly becomes genitive:

Neskaitau knygos.
I am not reading a book.

A recipient is normally dative:

Daviau draugui knygą.
I gave a friend a book.

An instrument or means can be instrumental:

Rašau rašikliu.
I write with a pen.

Location can be locative:

Esu bibliotekoje.
I am in the library.

Direction can instead require a preposition plus accusative:

Einu į biblioteką.
I am going to the library.

A verb may determine a case independently of these broad meanings:

Laukiu autobuso.
I am waiting for the bus.

The object of laukti (to wait for) is genitive.

A preposition can likewise impose its own case:

su draugu
with a friend

be draugo
without a friend

į miestą
into the city

The most effective way to master Lithuanian cases is to learn them in complete grammatical patterns rather than as isolated lists of meanings.

For example, the learner should acquire:

laukti + genitive

padėti + dative

su + instrumental

į + accusative

rather than attempting to choose a case from meaning alone.

Case also interacts with agreement. An adjective, pronoun, numeral, or participle that modifies a noun generally appears in the same case:

naujas namas
new house

naujo namo
of the new house

naujam namui
to the new house

naują namą
new house, as direct object

nauju namu
with a new house

naujame name
in a new house

The phrase changes as a grammatical unit.

Word order remains relatively flexible because case endings identify these relationships.

Lithuanian Adjectives

Lithuanian adjectives describe qualities, properties, classifications, materials, relationships, and other characteristics associated with nouns. They can also function as predicates describing the subject of a clause.

Examples include:

geras
good

didelis
large

gražus
beautiful

žalias
green

medinis
wooden

In an ordinary noun phrase, an adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case:

geras žmogus
good person

gera knyga
good book

geri žmonės
good people

geros knygos
good books

If the noun changes case, the adjective changes with it:

gero žmogaus
of a good person

gerai knygai
to a good book

gerus žmones
good people, as direct object

gerose knygose
in good books

Adjectives therefore have much larger paradigms than nouns. A noun has one grammatical gender, but an adjective usually has both masculine and feminine forms because it must adapt to different nouns.

Many qualitative adjectives also form comparative and superlative degrees and have definite forms. Those systems are treated in the next chapter.

Adjective Gender

Lithuanian adjectives distinguish masculine and feminine gender.

The basic dictionary form is normally the masculine nominative singular:

geras
good

Its corresponding feminine form is:

gera
good

Other common pairs include:

didelis – didelė
large

gražus – graži
beautiful

žalias – žalia
green

naujas – nauja
new

Gender is determined by the noun being modified:

naujas namas
new house

nauja gatvė
new street

didelis miestas
large city

didelė šalis
large country

The adjective does not have a permanently fixed gender. Instead, the same adjective lexeme takes the form required by the noun.

When an adjective is used predicatively, it likewise agrees with the noun or pronoun to which it refers:

Namas didelis.
The house is large.

Gatvė didelė.
The street is large.

Adjective Case

Lithuanian adjectives decline for case. The adjective normally appears in the same case as the noun it modifies.

Consider the phrase:

naujas namas
new house

The adjective changes together with the noun.

For example:

Matau naują namą.
I see a new house.

Both naują and namą are accusative.

Gyvenu naujame name.
I live in a new house.

Both naujame and name are locative.

Case agreement makes the internal structure of the noun phrase clear even when other elements intervene.

Masculine adjective

Its forms occur with masculine nouns and masculine pronouns.

Common nominative singular endings are:

-as

-ias

-us

-is

Examples:

geras žmogus
good person

žalias miškas
green forest

gražus miestas
beautiful city

didelis namas
large house

The masculine plural endings vary according to class:

geri žmonės
good people

žali miškai
green forests

gražūs miestai
beautiful cities

dideli namai
large houses

Masculine plural forms are also important when an adjective refers collectively to a mixed-gender group:

Jonas ir Rūta pavargę.
Jonas and Rūta are tired.

Here the plural agreement follows the standard masculine plural pattern for a mixed group.

Feminine Adjective Forms

Feminine adjectives occur with feminine nouns and pronouns.

Their common nominative singular endings include:

-a

-ia

-i

-ė

Examples:

gera diena
good day

žalia pieva
green meadow

graži gatvė
beautiful street

didelė šalis
large country

The corresponding plural forms are:

geros dienos
good days

žalios pievos
green meadows

gražios gatvės
beautiful streets

didelės šalys
large countries

Feminine forms are not created by one universal ending. Their exact pattern depends on the adjective class.

A learner should therefore acquire adjectives as pairs where useful:

geras – gera

gražus – graži

didelis – didelė

This makes later agreement considerably easier.

Lithuanian Pronouns

Lithuanian pronouns refer to people, things, qualities, quantities, or previously mentioned information without repeating a full noun phrase. Many pronouns are highly inflected and change according to case, number, and, in the third person, gender.

The major groups include:

• personal pronouns;

• reflexive pronouns;

• possessive pronouns;

• demonstrative pronouns;

• interrogative pronouns;

• relative pronouns;

• indefinite pronouns;

• negative pronouns;

• determinative pronouns.

The basic personal pronouns are:

Person

Singular

Plural

First person

aš (I)

mes (we)

Second person

tu (you)

jūs (you)

Third person masculine

jis (he; it)

jie (they)

Third person feminine

ji (she; it)

jos (they)

Personal pronouns decline for case. Their forms are often irregular, so they must be learned as complete paradigms rather than derived mechanically from the nominative.

Lithuanian also has the reflexive pronoun:

savęs
oneself

Unlike ordinary personal pronouns, it has no nominative form because a reflexive pronoun cannot normally function as an independent subject referring back to itself.

First-Person Pronouns

The first person refers to the speaker in the singular and to a group including the speaker in the plural.

The basic forms are:

aš
I

mes
we

Their complete case paradigms are:

Case

Singular

Plural

Nominative

aš

mes

Genitive

manęs

mūsų

Dative

man

mums

Accusative

mane

mus

Instrumental

manimi

mumis

Locative

manyje

mumyse

Examples:

Aš dirbu Vilniuje.
I work in Vilnius.

Mes gyvename Lietuvoje.
We live in Lithuania.

The nominative forms are frequently omitted because the verb ending normally identifies first person:

Dirbu Vilniuje.
I work in Vilnius.

Gyvename Lietuvoje.
We live in Lithuania.

The pronoun is retained when emphasis, contrast, or clarification is useful:

Aš dirbu Vilniuje, o Tomas dirba Kaune.
I work in Vilnius, while Tomas works in Kaunas.

Second-Person Pronouns

The second person refers to the person or people being addressed.

The basic forms are:

tu
you, singular

jūs
you, plural or polite singular

Their declension is:

Case

Singular

Plural or polite

Nominative

tu

jūs

Genitive

tavęs

jūsų

Dative

tau

jums

Accusative

tave

jus

Instrumental

tavimi

jumis

Locative

tavyje

jumyse

Examples:

Tu labai gerai kalbi lietuviškai.
You speak Lithuanian very well.

Jūs galite užeiti.
You may come in.

As with first-person pronouns, the nominative is often unnecessary:

Ar supranti?
Do you understand?

The ending of supranti identifies second-person singular.

Plural or polite address uses second-person plural verb forms:

Ar suprantate?
Do you understand?

The choice between tu and jūs also expresses social relationship and degree of formality.

Third-Person Pronouns

Third-person pronouns refer to people or things outside the speaker–addressee relationship.

Lithuanian distinguishes gender in both singular and plural:

jis
he; it, masculine

ji
she; it, feminine

jie
they, masculine or mixed

jos
they, feminine

Examples:

Jis dirba banke.
He works in a bank.

Ji studijuoja mediciną.
She studies medicine.

Jie gyvena Kaune.
They live in Kaunas.

Jos laukia autobuso.
They are waiting for the bus.

The same pronouns can refer to inanimate nouns according to grammatical gender.

For example, stalas (table) is masculine:

Jis naujas.
It is new.

The noun knyga (book) is feminine:

Ji nauja.
It is new.

Third-person pronouns therefore follow grammatical gender rather than a separate animate–inanimate system.

Plural Personal Pronouns

The plural personal pronouns are:

mes
we

jūs
you

jie
they, masculine or mixed

jos
they, feminine

Their forms are:

Case

mes

jūs

jie

jos

Nominative

mes

jūs

jie

jos

Genitive

mūsų

jūsų

jų

jų

Dative

mums

jums

jiems

joms

Accusative

mus

jus

juos

jas

Instrumental

mumis

jumis

jais

jomis

Locative

mumyse

jumyse

juose

jose

The genitive third-person plural jų is identical for masculine and feminine referents.

Lithuanian Prepositions

Lithuanian prepositions are uninflected words that establish grammatical and semantic relationships between nouns, pronouns, numerals, and other nominal expressions.

Common prepositions include:

ant
on

be
without

dėl
because of; concerning

iš
from; out of

į
into; to

nuo
from; since

prie
near; by; at

su
with

apie
about

per
through; across; during

A Lithuanian preposition normally requires its complement to appear in a particular grammatical case. This relationship is called case government.

For example:

su draugu
with a friend

The preposition su requires the instrumental case, so draugas (friend) becomes draugu.

By contrast:

be draugo
without a friend

The preposition be requires the genitive, producing draugo.

A learner should therefore treat a preposition and its case as one grammatical unit:

su + instrumental

be + genitive

į + accusative

The meaning of a preposition can change according to the case it governs. This is particularly important with po and už.

Prepositions and Case Selection

Lithuanian prepositions principally govern three cases:

• genitive;

• accusative;

• instrumental.

The nominative, dative, locative, and vocative are not normally governed directly by ordinary prepositions in contemporary Standard Lithuanian.

The main patterns covered in this chapter are:

Case

Important prepositions

Genitive

ant, be, dėl, iki, iš, nuo, po, prie, už

Accusative

apie, į, per, prieš, pro, už

Instrumental

su, ties, po

The table gives the principal patterns, but the learner should notice that po and už occur with more than one case. Their meaning changes according to the case selected.

Examples:

po darbo
after work

po stalu
under the table

and:

už namo
behind the house

už namą
for the house; beyond the house, depending on context

Case is therefore part of the meaning of the entire prepositional construction.

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition together with the noun phrase it governs.

For example:

su geru draugu
with a good friend

The preposition is:

su

The governed phrase is:

geru draugu

Both the adjective and noun are instrumental.

Another example:

apie naują projektą
about the new project

The preposition apie governs the accusative, so both words take accusative forms:

naują projektą

Prepositional phrases can perform many syntactic functions.

Place:

prie stoties
near the station

Time:

po darbo
after work

Cause:

dėl lietaus
because of the rain

Topic:

apie istoriją
about history

Accompaniment:

su šeima
with the family

Direction:

į miestą
into the city

A prepositional phrase can modify a verb:

Kalbu su gydytoju.
I am speaking with the doctor.

It can modify a noun:

knyga apie Lietuvą
a book about Lithuania

It can also function predicatively:

Dovana skirta Jonui, o laiškas – apie projektą.
The gift is intended for Jonas, while the letter is about the project.

The preposition governs its complement independently of the role played by the complete phrase in the sentence.

Case Alternations and Changes in Meaning

Some Lithuanian prepositions govern more than one case. In such constructions, case choice can alter the meaning substantially.

The two most important examples are po and už.

Po

With the genitive, po normally expresses temporal succession:

po darbo
after work

po pietų
after lunch

po savaitės
after a week

With the instrumental, it expresses location under something:

po stalu
under the table

po medžiu
under the tree

With the accusative, it occurs in several important constructions.

Movement throughout an area:

vaikščioti po miestą
to walk around the city

keliauti po Lietuvą
to travel around Lithuania

Distribution:

po vieną knygą
one book each

po du bilietus
two tickets each

Lithuanian prepositional grammar is therefore a combination of lexical government and semantic structure. The preposition determines the grammatical case of its complement, while the selected case can itself help distinguish location, direction, temporal sequence, distribution, comparison, cause, and other relationships.

Lithuanian Adverbs

Adverbs are uninflected words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, entire clauses, or the relationship between parts of a sentence. Unlike adjectives, they do not agree in gender, number, or case.

Compare the adjective:

greitas automobilis
fast car

with the adverb:

automobilis važiuoja greitai
the car is moving quickly

The adjective greitas changes according to the noun it modifies. The adverb greitai remains unchanged.

Adverbs can express many kinds of information, including:

• manner;

• place;

• direction;

• time;

• frequency;

• duration;

• degree;

• quantity;

• cause;

• speaker attitude;

• certainty and probability.

Examples include:

greitai
quickly

čia
here

rytoj
tomorrow

dažnai
often

labai
very

tikriausiai
probably

An adverb may modify a verb:

Jonas kalba lėtai.
Jonas speaks slowly.

It may modify an adjective:

labai svarbus klausimas
very important question

It may modify another adverb:

nepaprastai greitai
extremely quickly

It may also modify the entire proposition:

Tikriausiai rytoj lis.
It will probably rain tomorrow.

Because adverbs do not decline, their grammatical function is identified primarily through meaning, position, and the construction in which they occur.

Adverbs Derived from Adjectives

Many Lithuanian manner adverbs are derived from adjectives. This is one of the most productive ways of forming adverbs.

Compare:

greitas
fast

greitai
quickly

ramus
calm

ramiai
calmly

aiškus
clear

aiškiai
clearly

tikslus
precise

tiksliai
precisely

The adjective describes a noun:

ramus žmogus
calm person

The corresponding adverb describes an action:

žmogus kalba ramiai
the person speaks calmly

Another pair:

aiškus atsakymas
clear answer

atsakyti aiškiai
to answer clearly

Not every adjective has a commonly used corresponding adverb, and some adverbs have meanings that have become partly independent of the adjective from which they originated.

For productive patterns, the learner should recognize the adjective stem and the characteristic adverbial ending.

Some Lithuanian adverbs are basic lexical words rather than transparently derived from contemporary adjectives.

Common examples include:

čia
here

ten
there

kur
where

dabar
now

tada
then

jau
already

dar
still; yet; more

labai
very

daug
much; many

mažai
little; few

These adverbs should be learned as independent vocabulary items.

Examples:

Aš dabar dirbu.
I am working now.

Jonas jau atėjo.
Jonas has already arrived.

Rūta dar miega.
Rūta is still sleeping.

Čia labai tylu.
It is very quiet here.

Simple adverbs are often among the most frequent words in Lithuanian because they organize time, space, degree, and discourse.

Compound Adverbs

Some adverbs consist historically or structurally of more than one element, even when they function as a single adverbial expression.

Examples include:

visada
always

kartais
sometimes

netrukus
soon

iš karto
immediately

kol kas
for now; so far

šiuo metu
at the moment

Not all adverbial expressions are written as one orthographic word. A multiword phrase can function adverbially:

iš pradžių
at first

po truputį
little by little

visų pirma
first of all

For grammatical analysis, the important point is the function of the complete expression rather than whether it is written as one word or several.

For example:

Iš pradžių buvo sunku.
At first it was difficult.

The phrase iš pradžių functions as a temporal adverbial.

Modal Adverbs

Modal adverbs express the speaker's assessment of possibility, probability, certainty, necessity, or expectation.

Important examples include:

tikriausiai
probably

greičiausiai
most likely; probably

galbūt
perhaps

veikiausiai
probably; most likely

matyt
apparently; presumably

Examples:

Jis tikriausiai vėluos.
He will probably be late.

Galbūt rytoj snigs.
Perhaps it will snow tomorrow.

Matyt, jie jau išvyko.
Apparently, they have already left.

Modal adverbs often combine with indicative verbs. The uncertainty comes from the adverb rather than from a special verbal mood.

Compare:

Jis atvyks.
He will arrive.

Jis tikriausiai atvyks.
He will probably arrive.

The future verb remains the same; tikriausiai modifies the degree of certainty.

Evaluative Adverbs

Evaluative adverbs express an assessment of a situation from the speaker's perspective.

Examples include:

gerai
well; fortunately in some contexts

blogai
badly; unfortunately in some contexts

laimei
fortunately

deja
unfortunately

keista and gaila can function as impersonal predicative words rather than ordinary manner adverbs, so they should be distinguished from straightforward adverbial forms.

Examples:

Laimei, niekas nenukentėjo.
Fortunately, nobody was injured.

Deja, turime išvykti.
Unfortunately, we have to leave.

Gerai, kad atėjai.
It is good that you came.

Here gerai evaluates the complete situation introduced by kad.

Evaluative adverbs can therefore operate at clause level rather than merely describing how an action is performed.

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

An adverb is a lexical word such as:

greitai

čia

rytoj

An adverbial is a syntactic function. It can be expressed not only by an adverb but also by a noun phrase, prepositional phrase, participial construction, or subordinate clause.

Compare several ways to express time:

vakar
yesterday

visą dieną
all day

po darbo
after work

kai grįžau namo
when I returned home

All can function as temporal adverbials.

Place can be expressed by an adverb:

čia
here

a locative noun:

Vilniuje
in Vilnius

or a prepositional phrase:

prie stoties
near the station

Manner can be expressed by an adverb:

atsargiai
carefully

an instrumental phrase:

ramiu balsu
in a calm voice

or a non-finite construction:

šypsodamasis
while smiling; smiling

A complete sentence may contain several different types:

Vakar Rūta ramiai kalbėjo su gydytoju ligoninėje.
Yesterday Rūta spoke calmly with the doctor in the hospital.

Here:

vakar expresses time;

ramiai expresses manner;

su gydytoju expresses accompaniment or conversational partner;

ligoninėje expresses location.

Adverbial meaning is therefore much broader than the grammatical category of adverbs.

The Lithuanian adverb system is therefore structurally simple in inflection—adverbs are unchanging—but semantically very rich. Adverbs organize actions according to time, place, manner, quantity, frequency, degree, certainty, and speaker evaluation, while larger adverbial phrases extend the same functions throughout the clause.

Present Tense in Lithuanian

Lithuanian has four principal simple indicative tenses:

• present;

• simple past;

• past frequentative;

• future.

These tenses distinguish different temporal relationships and, in the case of the past frequentative, a specific type of repeated or habitual past situation.

The present tense is formed from the present stem of the verb. It expresses situations located in the present, habitual activities, general truths, and in some contexts future events.

Examples:

Dirbu ligoninėje.
I work in a hospital.

Dabar skaitau knygą.
I am reading a book now.

Saulė teka rytuose.
The sun rises in the east.

The exact meaning depends on context.

The present tense is also the tense used in many descriptions:

Vilnius yra Lietuvos sostinė.
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania.

Ši gatvė veda į centrą.
This street leads to the center.

Because Lithuanian present forms are finite, they mark person in the first and second persons and use one common third-person form.

Formation of the Present Tense

The present tense is built from the present stem and the endings associated with one of the three main conjugation classes.

The three major patterns are:

Third-person form

First singular

Second singular

First plural

Second plural

-a

-u

-i

-ame

-ate

-i

-iu

-i

-ime

-ite

-o

-au

-ai

-ome

-ote

Examples:

dirbti – dirba

dirbu
I work

dirbi
you work

dirba
he/she works; they work

dirbame
we work

dirbate
you work

turėti – turi

turiu

turi

turi

turime

turite

rašyti – rašo

rašau

rašai

rašo

rašome

rašote

The third-person present form is therefore essential for identifying the correct conjugational pattern.

Uses of the Present Tense

The present tense has several major functions.

It can describe an action occurring at the moment of speaking:

Dabar kalbu telefonu.
I am speaking on the phone now.

It can describe a habitual activity:

Kasdien einu į darbą pėsčiomis.
I walk to work every day.

It can state a general fact:

Vanduo užšąla esant žemai temperatūrai.
Water freezes at low temperatures.

It can describe a state:

Gyvenu Kaune.
I live in Kaunas.

It can also refer to a scheduled or firmly arranged future event:

Rytoj išvykstu į Vilnių.
I am leaving for Vilnius tomorrow.

The present tense should therefore not be equated with one single temporal meaning. Adverbs, context, lexical meaning, and discourse structure determine the interpretation.

Habitual Present

The habitual present describes actions repeated regularly or characteristically.

Typical time expressions include:

kasdien
every day

dažnai
often

paprastai
usually

visada
always

kartais
sometimes

Examples:

Kasdien geriu kavą.
I drink coffee every day.

Ji dažnai važiuoja į Kauną.
She often travels to Kaunas.

Mes paprastai pietaujame dvyliktą valandą.
We usually have lunch at twelve o'clock.

The present tense does not require a separate habitual marker. The repeated interpretation comes from the adverbial context or from general knowledge.

A bare sentence can also be habitual:

Jonas dirba banke.
Jonas works in a bank.

This describes his regular occupation rather than an action necessarily occurring at the exact moment of speech.

General and Timeless Present

The present tense is used for facts and relationships presented as generally valid.

Examples:

Žemė sukasi aplink Saulę.
The Earth revolves around the Sun.

Vanduo verda šimto laipsnių temperatūroje.
Water boils at one hundred degrees.

Definitions also commonly use the present:

Veiksmažodis reiškia veiksmą, procesą arba būseną.
A verb expresses an action, process, or state.

The present can also describe permanent or relatively stable characteristics:

Šis kelias jungia du miestus.
This road connects two cities.

Lietuvių kalba priklauso baltų kalbų grupei.
Lithuanian belongs to the Baltic language group.

Such uses are not interpreted as actions occurring only now. The tense presents the proposition as valid at the reference time and generally beyond it.

Present with Future Reference

The present tense can refer to the future when a future time expression or context makes the intended time clear.

Examples:

Rytoj išvažiuoju į Kauną.
Tomorrow I am leaving for Kaunas.

Kitą savaitę pradedame naują projektą.
Next week we are starting a new project.

Susitikimas prasideda devintą valandą.
The meeting starts at nine o'clock.

This use is especially natural with:

• schedules;

• fixed plans;

• arrangements;

• events understood as already determined.

The future tense remains fully available:

Rytoj išvažiuosiu į Kauną.
Tomorrow I will leave for Kaunas.

The present often presents the future event as part of an established schedule or immediate plan, while the future form can be more neutral

Past Tense in Lithuanian

Lithuanian uses past-tense verb forms to describe actions, events, and states that occurred before the present moment. The language has two especially important synthetic past tenses: the simple past, traditionally called the būtasis kartinis laikas, and the frequentative or habitual past, called the būtasis dažninis laikas. Lithuanian can also create compound past constructions with forms of būti (to be) and participles when it is necessary to emphasize that one past event had already been completed before another.

The simple past is the ordinary tense for completed past events.

Vakar dirbau namuose.

Yesterday I worked at home.

Ji perskaitė knygą.

She read the book.

Mes atvykome vakare.

We arrived in the evening.

The frequentative past emphasizes actions that used to happen repeatedly or habitually.

Vaikystėje dažnai žaisdavau lauke.

In childhood I used to play outside often.

Vasarą važiuodavome prie jūros.

In summer we used to go to the seaside.

Lithuanian past-tense verbs change according to person and number. As in the present tense, the third-person singular and plural forms are identical.

The Simple Past

The simple past describes a past event, action, or state without necessarily indicating whether it happened once or repeatedly.

Vakar skaičiau knygą.

Yesterday I read a book.

Jonas grįžo namo.

Jonas returned home.

Ji gyveno Vilniuje.

She lived in Vilnius.

Mes kalbėjome apie projektą.

We talked about the project.

The surrounding context determines whether the action was momentary, completed, prolonged, or repeated.

Principal Forms of Lithuanian Verbs

Because the Lithuanian past stem cannot always be predicted perfectly from the infinitive or present tense, verbs are often best learned through three principal forms: the infinitive, the third-person present, and the third-person simple past.

For example:

dirbti — dirba — dirbo

to work — works — worked

skaityti — skaito — skaitė

to read — reads — read

rašyti — rašo — rašė

to write — writes — wrote

mylėti — myli — mylėjo

to love — loves — loved

eiti — eina — ėjo

to go — goes — went

būti — yra — buvo

to be — is — was

The third-person past form reveals the past stem and is therefore particularly useful when learning a new verb.

Completed Actions

The simple past frequently presents an event as completed.

Parašiau laišką.

I wrote the letter.

Nupirkome bilietus.

We bought the tickets.

Ji uždarė langą.

She closed the window.

Prefixes often contribute to a sense of completion, direction, or result.

Compare:

rašiau laišką

I was writing / wrote a letter

and:

parašiau laišką

I wrote and completed the letter

The prefix pa- can contribute a completed or result-oriented meaning in many verbs, although prefixes have multiple lexical functions and should not be treated as a universal mechanical marker of completion.

Ongoing Past Situations

The simple past can also describe an activity that lasted for some time.

Visą vakarą skaičiau.

I read all evening.

Ji dvi valandas laukė autobuso.

She waited for the bus for two hours.

Mes ilgai kalbėjome.

We talked for a long time.

Lithuanian does not require a separate progressive past equivalent to English “was doing.” Context determines whether a simple past form describes an ongoing or completed event.

Simultaneous Past Actions

Two actions occurring at the same time can both appear in the simple past.

Aš skaičiau, o ji žiūrėjo televizorių.

I was reading while she was watching television.

Kol mama gamino vakarienę, vaikai žaidė.

While mother was preparing dinner, the children were playing.

The conjunction kol is commonly used for simultaneous or overlapping events.

Sequence of Past Events

A series of completed events can also be expressed with simple past forms.

Atsikėliau, nusiprausiau, pavalgiau ir išėjau į darbą.

I got up, washed, ate, and left for work.

Ji atidarė duris, įėjo į kambarį ir atsisėdo.

She opened the door, entered the room, and sat down.

Prefixes and verb meanings help indicate the boundaries and results of each action.

Past Questions

Lithuanian does not use a special auxiliary equivalent to English “did.”

A question may be formed with ar.

Ar dirbai vakar?

Did you work yesterday?

Ar matei Joną?

Did you see Jonas?

Ar buvote Lietuvoje?

Were you in Lithuania?

Question words can also introduce past questions directly.

Kur buvai?

Where were you?

Ką darei vakar?

What did you do yesterday?

Kodėl išėjai?

Why did you leave?

Kada grįžote?

When did you return?

No auxiliary verb needs to be inserted.

Learning the Past Tense Efficiently

The most practical method is to learn the infinitive, third-person present, and third-person past together.

For example:

daryti — daro — darė

to do — does — did

pirkti — perka — pirko

to buy — buys — bought

kalbėti — kalba — kalbėjo

to speak — speaks — spoke

matyti — mato — matė

to see — sees — saw

eiti — eina — ėjo

to go — goes — went

Once the third-person past is known, the rest of the simple past paradigm is generally much easier to construct.

It is also useful to learn a frequentative form when the verb is common:

dirbo — dirbdavo

worked — used to work

skaitė — skaitydavo

read — used to read

ėjo — eidavo

went — used to go

Future Tense in Lithuanian

The Lithuanian future tense is used to describe actions, events, and states that are expected to occur after the present moment. It is a synthetic tense, meaning that it is normally formed by changing the verb itself rather than by adding a separate auxiliary equivalent to English “will.”

The future tense is widely used for predictions, plans, intentions, promises, scheduled actions, assumptions about the future, and events that will happen when a particular condition is fulfilled.

Rytoj dirbsiu namuose.

Tomorrow I will work at home.

Ji vakare paskambins.

She will call in the evening.

Kitą savaitę važiuosime į Vilnių.

Next week we will go to Vilnius.

Viskas bus gerai.

Everything will be fine.

Lithuanian future-tense verbs change according to person and number. As in the present and past tenses, the third-person singular and plural forms are identical.

Basic Formation

The future tense is generally formed from the infinitive stem with a future marker containing -s-, followed by personal endings.

Using dirbti, meaning “to work”:

aš dirbsiu

I will work

tu dirbsi

you will work

jis dirbs

he will work

ji dirbs

she will work

mes dirbsime

we will work

jūs dirbsite

you will work

jie dirbs

they will work

jos dirbs

they will work

The future marker -s- is clearly visible throughout the paradigm.

Personal Endings

The most characteristic future endings are:

-siu

first-person singular

-si

second-person singular

-s

third person

-sime

first-person plural

-site

second-person plural

-s

third-person plural

For example, with kalbėti, meaning “to speak”:

kalbėsiu

I will speak

kalbėsi

you will speak

kalbės

he, she, or they will speak

kalbėsime

we will speak

kalbėsite

you will speak

Third-Person Singular and Plural

Lithuanian uses the same future form for third-person singular and plural.

Jis dirbs rytoj.

He will work tomorrow.

Jie dirbs rytoj.

They will work tomorrow.

Likewise:

Ji ateis vakare.

She will come in the evening.

Jos ateis vakare.

They will come in the evening.

The subject or surrounding context identifies whether the verb refers to one person or several.

Future Time Expressions

The future tense frequently appears with expressions that locate an action after the present moment.

rytoj

tomorrow

poryt

the day after tomorrow

vėliau

later

netrukus

soon

kitą savaitę

next week

kitą mėnesį

next month

kitais metais

next year

po valandos

in an hour

po savaitės

in a week

Examples:

Rytoj susitiksime.

We will meet tomorrow.

Poryt išvažiuosiu.

I will leave the day after tomorrow.

Po valandos grįšiu.

I will return in an hour.

Kitais metais gyvensime Lietuvoje.

Next year we will live in Lithuania.

Plans and Intentions

The future tense commonly expresses intended actions.

Vakare gaminsiu vakarienę.

I will prepare dinner in the evening.

Savaitgalį aplankysime draugus.

We will visit friends at the weekend.

Rytoj pradėsiu naują projektą.

Tomorrow I will start a new project.

The future form itself can express an intention without requiring a separate verb meaning “will.”

Future Perfect Meaning

Lithuanian can form a compound future construction with the future of būti and a past active participle when it is necessary to emphasize that an action will already have been completed by some future point.

A masculine speaker may say:

Iki vakaro būsiu baigęs darbą.

By evening I will have finished the work.

A feminine speaker uses:

Iki vakaro būsiu baigusi darbą.

By evening I will have finished the work.

Plural subjects also require agreement.

Iki penktadienio būsime užbaigę projektą.

By Friday we will have completed the project.

Such compound constructions are useful when the completion of one future action relative to another future moment is important.

Gender in Compound Future Forms

The ordinary synthetic future does not distinguish gender.

Aš dirbsiu.

I will work.

This sentence can be said by either a man or a woman.

However, compound forms containing participles do distinguish gender.

Masculine:

Būsiu perskaitęs knygą.

I will have read the book.

Feminine:

Būsiu perskaičiusi knygą.

I will have read the book.

The form of būsiu remains identical, while the participle changes.

Future Commands and Requests

An imperative is normally used for a direct command, but future forms can sometimes express firm instructions, expectations, or promises about what someone is to do.

A direct instruction is:

Paskambink rytoj.

Call tomorrow.

A future question can make the request softer:

Ar paskambinsi rytoj?

Will you call tomorrow?

Similarly:

Ar padėsi man?

Will you help me?

These future questions frequently function pragmatically as requests.

Future with manau

The verb manyti, meaning “to think,” often introduces predictions.

Manau, kad jis ateis.

I think he will come.

Manau, kad rytoj lis.

I think it will rain tomorrow.

Manau, kad mums pavyks.

I think we will succeed.

The verb in the subordinate clause is normally future when the predicted event belongs to the future.

Future of Common Verbs

Several frequent forms are useful to memorize immediately.

daryti — darysiu

to do — I will do

matyti — matysiu

to see — I will see

žinoti — žinosiu

to know — I will know

suprasti — suprasiu

to understand — I will understand

pirkti — pirksiu

to buy — I will buy

gauti — gausiu

to receive — I will receive

rasti — rasiu

to find — I will find

imti — imsiu

to take — I will take

duoti — duosiu

to give — I will give

ateiti — ateisiu

to come — I will come

Learning complete future forms is useful because phonological and stem adjustments are not always obvious from the infinitive alone.

Building Future Sentences

A basic future sentence may consist of only a verb.

Ateisiu.

I will come.

Additional information can be added gradually.

Ateisiu rytoj.

I will come tomorrow.

Ateisiu rytoj vakare.

I will come tomorrow evening.

Ateisiu rytoj vakare pas tave.

I will come to your place tomorrow evening.

Another example:

Dirbsime.

We will work.

Rytoj dirbsime.

Tomorrow we will work.

Rytoj dirbsime namuose.

Tomorrow we will work at home.

Rytoj visą dieną dirbsime namuose.

Tomorrow we will work at home all day.

The verb itself already identifies the future and the grammatical person.

Learning the Future Tense Efficiently

The future tense is comparatively systematic, but verbs should still be learned with their principal forms. A useful learning sequence is:

dirbti — dirba — dirbo — dirbs

to work — works — worked — will work

skaityti — skaito — skaitė — skaitys

to read — reads — read — will read

eiti — eina — ėjo — eis

to go — goes — went — will go

būti — yra — buvo — bus

to be — is — was — will be

The third-person future is particularly useful because it shows the future stem without a personal ending other than -s.

Complete sentences should then be added:

Rytoj dirbsiu.

Tomorrow I will work.

Vakare skaitysiu.

In the evening I will read.

Po valandos grįšiu.

I will return in an hour.

Kitą savaitę būsime Vilniuje.

Next week we will be in Vilnius.

The Lithuanian future tense provides a compact and productive way to express events occurring after the present. It is generally formed with a future marker containing -s-, combines directly with personal endings, and requires no separate auxiliary equivalent to English “will.” It is used for predictions, plans, promises, intentions, future conditions, scheduled events, and anticipated results. Once the core endings and several common irregular forms such as būsiu, eisiu, and bus become familiar, the future tense is one of the most regular and accessible areas of Lithuanian verb grammar.

Imperatives in Lithuanian

The Lithuanian imperative is used to give commands, instructions, requests, invitations, warnings, advice, encouragement, and permission. It belongs to the Lithuanian mood system and is most closely associated with actions that the speaker wants another person, a group of people, or a group including the speaker to perform.

The most characteristic imperative forms are second-person singular, second-person plural, and first-person plural.

Ateik čia.

Come here.

Palaukite minutę.

Wait a minute.

Pradėkime.

Let us begin.

Lithuanian imperatives are normally formed directly from the verb rather than with a separate auxiliary. A characteristic -k- element appears in many imperative forms.

Second-Person Singular

The second-person singular imperative is used when addressing one person informally. It commonly ends in -k.

Using dirbti, meaning “to work”:

dirbk

work

Using skaityti, meaning “to read”:

skaityk

read

Using rašyti, meaning “to write”:

rašyk

write

Using kalbėti, meaning “to speak”:

kalbėk

speak

Examples:

Dirbk atidžiai.

Work carefully.

Skaityk tekstą.

Read the text.

Rašyk aiškiai.

Write clearly.

Kalbėk lėčiau.

Speak more slowly.

Because the imperative itself indicates that the listener is being addressed, the pronoun tu is usually unnecessary.

Ateik rytoj.

Come tomorrow.

is normally more natural than explicitly adding tu, unless contrast or emphasis is intended.

Second-Person Plural

The second-person plural imperative is usually formed with -kite or a closely related form.

dirbkite

work

skaitykite

read

rašykite

write

kalbėkite

speak

Examples:

Prašau, atsisėskite.

Please sit down.

Perskaitykite šį tekstą.

Read this text.

Palaukite čia.

Wait here.

Kalbėkite garsiau.

Speak louder.

These forms are used when addressing more than one person.

They are also very important in polite singular address. Since Lithuanian uses jūs as a respectful form for one person, the corresponding plural imperative is used in polite requests.

Informal singular:

Sėsk.

Sit down.

Polite singular or plural:

Sėskite.

Sit down.

First-Person Plural Imperative

Lithuanian has a first-person plural imperative meaning “let us …” or “let's …”. It normally contains -kime.

dirbkime

let us work

skaitykime

let us read

rašykime

let us write

kalbėkime

let us speak

Examples:

Pradėkime darbą.

Let us begin the work.

Eikime namo.

Let us go home.

Pakalbėkime apie tai.

Let us talk about it.

Palaukime dar penkias minutes.

Let us wait another five minutes.

This form includes both the speaker and one or more other people.

Polite Requests

A bare imperative can be perfectly normal, but politeness can be increased with words such as prašau, meaning “please.”

Prašau, atsisėskite.

Please sit down.

Prašau, palaukite čia.

Please wait here.

Prašau, pasirašykite čia.

Please sign here.

Politeness is also communicated through the jūs form.

Informal:

Atidaryk langą.

Open the window.

Polite:

Atidarykite langą.

Open the window.

The second version is suitable when speaking respectfully to one person or when addressing several people.

Tone and Formality

The same imperative can sound very different depending on the situation.

Palauk.

Wait.

may be friendly and ordinary between friends but too direct in a formal interaction.

A more polite version is:

Prašau, palaukite.

Please wait.

Or:

Ar galėtumėte palaukti?

Could you wait?

Choosing between singular and plural forms, adding prašau, or using a modal question allows Lithuanian speakers to adjust the degree of formality and directness.

Common Imperatives to Learn Early

Several imperative forms occur constantly in everyday Lithuanian.

ateik

come

eik

go

palauk

wait

žiūrėk

look

klausyk

listen

sakyk

say; tell

duok

give

imk

take

sėsk

sit down

stok

stop; stand

būk

be

daryk

do

skaityk

read

rašyk

write

kalbėk

speak

Knowing their plural or polite forms is equally useful.

ateikite

come

eikite

go

palaukite

wait

žiūrėkite

look

klausykite

listen

sakykite

say; tell

duokite

give

imkite

take

būkite

be

Learning Imperatives Efficiently

A useful method is to learn three imperative forms together:

dirbk — dirbkite — dirbkime

work — work — let us work

skaityk — skaitykite — skaitykime

read — read — let us read

kalbėk — kalbėkite — kalbėkime

speak — speak — let us speak

For reflexive verbs:

mokykis — mokykitės — mokykimės

study — study — let us study

For frequent irregular forms:

eik — eikite — eikime

go — go — let us go

būk — būkite — būkime

be — be — let us be

It is also useful to learn positive and negative pairs.

eik

go

neik

do not go

daryk

do

nedaryk

do not do

kalbėk

speak

nekalbėk

do not speak

Finally, complete phrases provide the clearest model:

Ateik rytoj.

Come tomorrow.

Prašau, palaukite čia.

Please wait here.

Eikime namo.

Let us go home.

Nepamiršk dokumentų.

Do not forget the documents.

Tegul jis ateina vėliau.

Let him come later.

The Lithuanian imperative is a compact and productive system. Second-person singular forms commonly contain -k, polite or plural forms typically use -kite, and first-person plural forms use -kime. Reflexive verbs adapt these endings to their reflexive structure, while third-person commands are commonly expressed with tegul or tegu. Together with negation, vocatives, polite expressions, and modal questions, these forms allow commands to range from strong prohibitions to friendly invitations and highly courteous requests.

Passives in Lithuanian

Lithuanian passive constructions are used when the speaker wants to focus on the person, object, process, or result affected by an action rather than on the person or thing performing the action. The passive is formed primarily with passive participles, often together with forms of the verb būti (to be).

Compare an active sentence:

Darbuotojai rengia ataskaitą.

The employees are preparing the report.

with a passive sentence:

Ataskaita rengiama darbuotojų.

The report is being prepared by the employees.

In the active sentence, darbuotojai is the subject and performs the action. In the passive sentence, ataskaita becomes the grammatical subject and receives the action.

Lithuanian passive constructions are particularly important in formal writing, descriptions of processes, instructions, academic and administrative language, news reports, and situations in which the agent is unknown, unimportant, obvious, or intentionally omitted.

Passive Participles

The Lithuanian passive system depends heavily on passive participles. Two especially important types are the present passive participle and the past passive participle.

The present passive participle generally describes an action that is ongoing, repeated, habitual, or characteristic.

skaitomas

being read; read regularly — masculine

skaitoma

being read; read regularly — feminine

The past passive participle generally describes an action as completed or the resulting state produced by that action.

skaitytas

read; having been read — masculine

skaityta

read; having been read — feminine

Compare:

Knyga skaitoma.

The book is being read.

Knyga perskaityta.

The book has been read.

The first focuses on an ongoing process. The second emphasizes a completed action or its result.

Agreement of Passive Participles

Passive participles agree with the noun they describe in gender, number, and case.

Masculine singular:

skaitomas tekstas

a text being read

Feminine singular:

skaitoma knyga

a book being read

Masculine plural:

skaitomi tekstai

texts being read

Feminine plural:

skaitomos knygos

books being read

The same applies to past passive participles.

parašytas laiškas

a written letter

parašyta žinutė

a written message

parašyti laiškai

written letters

parašytos žinutės

written messages

Because participles behave in many respects like adjectives, their endings change when the noun changes case.

parašyto laiško

of the written letter

parašytam laiškui

to the written letter

parašytą laišką

the written letter — accusative

parašytame laiške

in the written letter

Present Passive Participles

Present passive participles are commonly formed from the present stem of the verb. Their characteristic element is usually -m-.

For skaityti, meaning “to read,” the third-person present is:

skaito

reads

The passive participle is:

skaitomas

being read — masculine

skaitoma

being read — feminine

Another example:

rašyti

to write

Present:

rašo

writes

Passive participle:

rašomas

being written — masculine

rašoma

being written — feminine

Another:

daryti

to do; to make

daro

does; makes

daromas

being done; being made

daroma

being done; being made

Present Passive in Sentences

The present passive commonly describes something currently happening.

Namas statomas.

The house is being built.

Kelias remontuojamas.

The road is being repaired.

Dokumentas tikrinamas.

The document is being checked.

Problema sprendžiama.

The problem is being solved.

The present form of būti may be included:

Namas yra statomas.

The house is being built.

However, the present-tense copula is frequently omitted when the meaning remains clear.

Namas statomas.

The house is being built.

Both forms are possible, but the shorter construction is extremely common.

Choosing Active or Passive

Lithuanian frequently prefers the active voice in ordinary conversation when the agent is known and important.

Natural active:

Jonas parašė laišką.

Jonas wrote the letter.

A passive version is possible:

Laiškas buvo parašytas Jono.

The letter was written by Jonas.

but it is more appropriate when the discussion is already centered on the letter.

The passive should therefore not be used simply because an English sentence happens to contain a passive. The choice depends on Lithuanian information structure and context.

Common Present Passive Patterns

Several patterns are especially useful:

yra naudojamas

is used — masculine

yra naudojama

is used — feminine

yra naudojami

are used — masculine plural

yra naudojamos

are used — feminine plural

Examples:

Šis metodas yra naudojamas dažnai.

This method is used often.

Ši sistema naudojama ligoninėse.

This system is used in hospitals.

Common Past Passive Patterns

buvo padarytas

was done — masculine

buvo padaryta

was done — feminine

buvo padaryti

were done — masculine plural

buvo padarytos

were done — feminine plural

Examples:

Darbas buvo padarytas vakar.

The work was done yesterday.

Užduotis buvo padaryta laiku.

The task was done on time.

Common Future Passive Patterns

bus padarytas

will be done — masculine

bus padaryta

will be done — feminine

bus padaryti

will be done — masculine plural

bus padarytos

will be done — feminine plural

Examples:

Remontas bus baigtas rytoj.

The repair will be completed tomorrow.

Užduotis bus atlikta vėliau.

The task will be completed later.

Learning Passive Forms Efficiently

A useful method is to learn active verbs together with their main passive participles.

For example:

rašyti

to write

rašomas

being written

parašytas

written; having been written

Another:

statyti

to build

statomas

being built

pastatytas

built

Another:

tikrinti

to check

tikrinamas

being checked

patikrintas

checked

Another:

naudoti

to use

naudojamas

being used

panaudotas

used; having been used

It is also useful to learn masculine and feminine forms together.

parašytas — parašyta

written

naudojamas — naudojama

being used

uždarytas — uždaryta

closed

Useful Passive Sentence Models

Present process:

Dokumentas tikrinamas.

The document is being checked.

Past event:

Dokumentas buvo patikrintas vakar.

The document was checked yesterday.

Present result:

Dokumentas jau patikrintas.

The document has already been checked.

Future:

Dokumentas bus patikrintas rytoj.

The document will be checked tomorrow.

Obligation:

Dokumentas turi būti patikrintas.

The document must be checked.

Possibility:

Dokumentas gali būti patikrintas šiandien.

The document can be checked today.

Impersonal passive:

Dokumentai čia tikrinami kasdien.

Documents are checked here every day.

Impersonal activity:

Čia daug dirbama.

People work a lot here.

Lithuanian passive constructions are therefore built primarily around passive participles and the verb būti. Present passive participles usually emphasize an ongoing or habitual process, while past passive participles usually emphasize completion or the resulting state. The participle agrees with its subject in gender, number, and case, while an expressed agent is commonly placed in the genitive. Lithuanian can also create highly productive impersonal passives, including constructions from intransitive verbs. These patterns make the passive especially useful for formal descriptions, procedures, reports, instructions, general statements, and any situation in which the affected entity or the action itself is more important than the person performing it.

Negation in Lithuanian

Lithuanian negation is expressed mainly with the negative particle or prefix ne-, but the full system is broader than simply placing ne before a verb. Negation affects verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, quantity expressions, and in many cases the grammatical case of direct objects. Lithuanian also uses negative concord, meaning that negative pronouns and adverbs normally appear together with a negative verb.

A basic affirmative sentence can be negated by adding ne- to the verb.

Dirbu.

I work.

Nedirbu.

I do not work.

Another example:

Ji skaito.

She is reading.

Ji neskaito.

She is not reading.

The negative element is normally written together with the verb.

Negating Verbs

The most common method of forming a negative verb is to add ne-.

žinau

I know

nežinau

I do not know

suprantu

I understand

nesuprantu

I do not understand

kalba

speaks

nekalba

does not speak

važiuosime

we will go

nevažiuosime

we will not go

This principle applies across tenses and moods.

Present-Tense Negation

Present-tense verbs are negated directly.

Aš dirbu namuose.

I work at home.

Aš nedirbu namuose.

I do not work at home.

Ji gyvena Vilniuje.

She lives in Vilnius.

Ji negyvena Vilniuje.

She does not live in Vilnius.

Mes suprantame klausimą.

We understand the question.

Mes nesuprantame klausimo.

We do not understand the question.

The verb retains its ordinary person and number ending.

Past-Tense Negation

The same negative prefix is used with past-tense forms.

Dirbau vakar.

I worked yesterday.

Nedirbau vakar.

I did not work yesterday.

Ji atėjo.

She came.

Ji neatėjo.

She did not come.

Mes matėme filmą.

We saw the film.

Mes nematėme filmo.

We did not see the film.

No auxiliary equivalent to English “did not” is required.

Future-Tense Negation

Future forms are negated in the same way.

Dirbsiu rytoj.

I will work tomorrow.

Nedirbsiu rytoj.

I will not work tomorrow.

Jis ateis vakare.

He will come in the evening.

Jis neateis vakare.

He will not come in the evening.

Mes važiuosime į Kauną.

We will go to Kaunas.

Mes nevažiuosime į Kauną.

We will not go to Kaunas.

Negation with būti

The verb būti, meaning “to be,” has several important negative forms.

Present:

esu

I am

nesu

I am not

esi

you are

nesi

you are not

yra

is; are

The ordinary negative existential or copular form is commonly:

nėra

is not; are not; there is no; there are no

Examples:

Aš nesu gydytojas.

I am not a doctor.

Ji nėra namuose.

She is not at home.

Čia nėra žmonių.

There are no people here.

Negating Adverbs

Adverbs can also form negative counterparts.

aiškiai

clearly

neaiškiai

unclearly

teisingai

correctly

neteisingai

incorrectly

greitai

quickly

negreitai

not quickly; not soon

Examples:

Jis kalba neaiškiai.

He speaks unclearly.

Atsakymas parašytas neteisingai.

The answer is written incorrectly.

In direct contrast, ne may again be separated conceptually:

Jis kalba ne greitai, o lėtai.

He speaks not quickly, but slowly.

Negative Pronouns

Lithuanian has a set of negative pronouns formed with nie-.

Important forms include:

niekas

nobody; nothing

nieko

nobody / nothing — genitive

niekam

to nobody

nieką

nobody / nothing — accusative

niekuo

with nothing; by nothing

Negative pronouns normally occur with a negative verb.

Niekas neatėjo.

Nobody came.

Nieko nemačiau.

I saw nothing.

Niekam nesakiau.

I told nobody.

This is normal Lithuanian negative concord.

Negative Concord

Lithuanian generally does not treat multiple negative elements as logically cancelling one another. Instead, negative pronouns and negative adverbs reinforce the negative meaning of the clause.

Niekas nieko nežino.

Nobody knows anything.

Literally, several negative elements appear, but the sentence has one overall negative meaning.

Niekada niekur nevažiuoju.

I never go anywhere.

Niekam nieko nesakiau.

I did not tell anyone anything.

This pattern is one of the most important differences between Lithuanian and languages that restrict double or multiple negation.

Negative Habitual Statements

Negation combines naturally with frequency adverbs.

Dažnai nevalgau pusryčių.

I often do not eat breakfast.

Paprastai nedirbu sekmadieniais.

I usually do not work on Sundays.

Niekada negeriu kavos vakare.

I never drink coffee in the evening.

The position of the frequency adverb affects emphasis but not the basic negative grammar.

Learning Negation Effectively

The most important pattern to master first is simple verbal negation:

dirbu — nedirbu

I work — I do not work

žinau — nežinau

I know — I do not know

ateisiu — neateisiu

I will come — I will not come

The second essential pattern is the accusative-to-genitive change under negation:

Matau žmogų.

I see the person.

Nematau žmogaus.

I do not see the person.

The third is negative concord:

Niekas neatėjo.

Nobody came.

Nieko nemačiau.

I saw nothing.

Niekada ten neinu.

I never go there.

The fourth is the temporal contrast between dar ne and nebe:

Dar nedirbu.

I am not working yet.

Nebedirbu.

I no longer work.

Finally, it is useful to distinguish clause negation from focused contrast:

Jonas nedirba.

Jonas is not working.

Dirba ne Jonas, o Petras.

It is not Jonas who is working, but Petras.

Lithuanian negation is therefore both morphological and syntactic. The negative prefix ne- attaches directly to verbs and many adjectives or adverbs, negative direct objects commonly shift from the accusative to the genitive, and negative pronouns such as niekas, nieko, niekur, and niekada normally occur together with a negative verb. Once these core patterns are understood, Lithuanian negative sentences become highly systematic across present, past, future, imperative, passive, reflexive, and modal constructions.

Modal Verbs in Lithuanian

Lithuanian uses several verbs and impersonal expressions to indicate ability, possibility, necessity, obligation, permission, intention, desire, knowledge, willingness, and similar meanings. These functions correspond broadly to what are often called modal verbs, although Lithuanian does not have a single closed class identical to the modal verbs found in some other languages.

The most important Lithuanian modal and modal-like verbs include galėti (to be able to; can), turėti (to have; to have to), privalėti (to be obliged to; must), norėti (to want), mokėti (to know how to; be able through acquired skill), and several impersonal expressions such as reikia (it is necessary; need), galima (it is possible; permitted), negalima (it is impossible; not permitted), and būtina (it is necessary; essential).

Modal verbs are commonly followed by an infinitive.

Galiu ateiti.

I can come.

Turiu dirbti.

I have to work.

Noriu pailsėti.

I want to rest.

Moku plaukti.

I know how to swim.

The modal verb carries person, number, tense, and mood, while the following lexical verb normally remains in the infinitive.

galėti — can; to be able to

galėti is one of the most important Lithuanian modal verbs. It expresses ability, possibility, opportunity, and in some contexts permission.

Present tense:

galiu

I can

gali

you can

gali

he or she can

galime

we can

galite

you can

gali

they can

Examples:

Galiu padėti.

I can help.

Ar gali ateiti rytoj?

Can you come tomorrow?

Ji gali kalbėti lietuviškai.

She can speak Lithuanian.

Mes galime pradėti.

We can begin.

Ability with galėti

When galėti expresses ability, it indicates that circumstances or the person's general capacity make an action possible.

Negaliu dabar kalbėti.

I cannot speak now.

Jis gali pakelti šią dėžę.

He can lift this box.

Vaikai gali žaisti lauke.

The children can play outside.

The exact meaning may depend on context: physical ability, opportunity, permission, or general possibility can all be expressed.

Permission with galėti

galėti can also ask for or grant permission.

Ar galiu įeiti?

May I come in?

Gali sėstis.

You may sit down.

Ar galime čia palikti automobilį?

Can we leave the car here?

Polite forms use jūs.

Ar galiu Jums užduoti klausimą?

May I ask you a question?

Ar galite palaukti?

Can you wait?

Past of galėti

The past forms include:

galėjau

I could; I was able to

galėjai

you could

galėjo

he or she could

galėjome

we could

galėjote

you could

galėjo

they could

Examples:

Vakar negalėjau ateiti.

Yesterday I could not come.

Mes galėjome pradėti anksčiau.

We could have started earlier / We were able to start earlier.

Context determines whether the meaning is actual past ability or unrealized possibility.

Future of galėti

galėsiu

I will be able to

galėsi

you will be able to

galės

he or she will be able to

galėsime

we will be able to

galėsite

you will be able to

galės

they will be able to

Examples:

Rytoj galėsiu padėti.

Tomorrow I will be able to help.

Kada galėsite atvykti?

When will you be able to arrive?

turėti — to have; have to

The ordinary lexical meaning of turėti is “to have.”

Turiu automobilį.

I have a car.

When followed by an infinitive, however, turėti commonly expresses necessity or obligation.

Turiu dirbti.

I have to work.

Ji turi išvykti.

She has to leave.

Turime palaukti.

We have to wait.

The strength of obligation depends on context.

Modal Verbs with Infinitives

A standard Lithuanian modal construction contains one finite verb and one infinitive.

Galiu padėti.

I can help.

Turiu išvykti.

I have to leave.

Noriu pailsėti.

I want to rest.

Moku vairuoti.

I know how to drive.

Only the modal verb is conjugated.

Incorrect structural logic would be to conjugate both verbs for the same subject. The lexical verb normally stays in its infinitive form.

Multiple Infinitives

More than one infinitive can sometimes follow a modal verb when several actions are coordinated.

Galiu ateiti ir padėti.

I can come and help.

Norime pavalgyti ir pailsėti.

We want to eat and rest.

Turime baigti darbą ir išsiųsti dokumentus.

We have to finish the work and send the documents.

The modal meaning can apply to both infinitives.

Modal Verbs and Negation

The position of negation is important because it determines what is being negated.

Negaliu ateiti.

I cannot come.

The ability is negated.

Galiu neateiti.

I can choose not to come.

The action of coming is negated.

Compare:

Nenoriu kalbėti.

I do not want to speak.

and:

Noriu nekalbėti.

I want not to speak.

The first negates the desire. The second expresses a positive desire to avoid speaking.

neturiu versus negaliu

These forms should not be confused.

Neturiu dirbti rytoj.

I do not have to work tomorrow.

There is no obligation.

Negaliu dirbti rytoj.

I cannot work tomorrow.

The action is impossible or circumstances prevent it.

Similarly:

Neprivalau ateiti.

I am not required to come.

Negaliu ateiti.

I cannot come.

Negalima ateiti.

Coming is not allowed / It is impossible to come.

Modal Verbs and Questions

Yes-or-no questions commonly use ar.

Ar gali ateiti?

Can you come?

Ar turi dirbti?

Do you have to work?

Ar nori valgyti?

Do you want to eat?

Ar moki plaukti?

Do you know how to swim?

The subject pronoun can be omitted because the verb form identifies the person.

Permission and Prohibition

Several structures can express permission.

Gali įeiti.

You may come in.

Galima įeiti.

Entry is allowed / You may come in.

A polite question:

Ar galiu įeiti?

May I come in?

Prohibition can be expressed with:

Negalima įeiti.

You may not enter.

or a direct negative imperative:

Neik.

Do not go.

The impersonal form sounds more like a rule or general restriction, while the imperative directly addresses the listener.

Necessity and Obligation

Lithuanian has several ways to express necessity, with different nuances.

Turiu išvykti.

I have to leave.

This is ordinary personal obligation.

Privalau išvykti.

I must leave.

This is stronger and more formal.

Man reikia išvykti.

I need to leave.

This emphasizes necessity.

Man būtina išvykti.

It is essential that I leave.

This expresses strong necessity.

These constructions overlap but are not completely interchangeable in tone.

Advice

Advice is often expressed with the conditional of turėti.

Turėtum pailsėti.

You should rest.

Turėtum daugiau sportuoti.

You should exercise more.

Polite:

Turėtumėte pasikalbėti su specialistu.

You should speak with a specialist.

Softer advice can use galėti:

Galėtum pabandyti dar kartą.

You could try again.

Politeness with Modal Forms

Conditional modal forms are central to polite Lithuanian.

Direct:

Duok man vandens.

Give me some water.

Polite question:

Ar galėtum duoti man vandens?

Could you give me some water?

More formal:

Ar galėtumėte man padėti?

Could you help me?

A polite wish:

Norėčiau pasikalbėti.

I would like to talk.

These structures allow requests to be phrased without a direct imperative.

Modal Verbs and Subject Omission

Because modal verbs are conjugated, subject pronouns can often be omitted.

Galiu padėti.

I can help.

Turi eiti.

You have to go.

Norime pradėti.

We want to begin.

Pronouns are used for contrast or emphasis.

Aš galiu ateiti, bet jis negali.

I can come, but he cannot.

Modal Verbs with Reflexive Infinitives

The infinitive following a modal can be reflexive.

Noriu mokytis.

I want to study.

Turiu pasiruošti.

I have to prepare.

Galiu atsisėsti.

I can sit down.

Reikia nusiprausti.

It is necessary to wash oneself.

The reflexive verb remains in its infinitive form.

Modal Verbs with Passive Infinitives

Modal meanings can also combine with passive constructions.

Dokumentas turi būti pasirašytas.

The document must be signed.

Problema gali būti išspręsta.

The problem can be solved.

Ataskaita privalo būti pateikta laiku.

The report must be submitted on time.

Tai negali būti padaryta šiandien.

This cannot be done today.

Here būti remains infinitive after the modal verb, while the passive participle agrees with the subject.

Word Order

The modal verb generally precedes its infinitive in neutral word order.

Noriu išvykti.

I want to leave.

Galiu padėti.

I can help.

Turime pradėti.

We have to begin.

However, Lithuanian word order is flexible, especially for emphasis.

Išvykti turiu šiandien.

It is today that I have to leave.

The infinitive may be moved forward when the action itself is emphasized.

Modal Verbs in Short Answers

Modal verbs can stand alone when the omitted infinitive is clear.

Ar gali ateiti?

Can you come?

Galiu.

I can.

Ar turi išvykti?

Do you have to leave?

Turiu.

I do.

Ar nori kavos?

Do you want coffee?

Noriu.

I do.

Negative answers are equally concise.

Negaliu.

I cannot.

Nenoriu.

I do not want to.

Learning Lithuanian Modal Verbs

It is useful to learn the principal modal verbs together with a typical infinitive.

galėti padėti

to be able to help

turėti dirbti

to have to work

privalėti laikytis taisyklių

to be required to follow the rules

norėti išvykti

to want to leave

mokėti plaukti

to know how to swim

The main impersonal expressions should also be learned as complete patterns.

man reikia + infinitive

I need to + verb

galima + infinitive

it is possible / allowed to + verb

negalima + infinitive

it is impossible / not allowed to + verb

būtina + infinitive

it is necessary to + verb

reikėtų + infinitive

one should / it would be necessary to + verb

Essential Contrasts

Several contrasts are particularly important.

Galiu eiti.

I can / may go.

Moku eiti.

I know how to walk.

The second is possible grammatically but normally unusual because walking is not usually treated as an acquired skill in ordinary conversation.

More naturally:

Moku plaukti.

I know how to swim.

Compare obligation:

Turiu eiti.

I have to go.

Strong obligation:

Privalau eiti.

I must go.

Necessity:

Man reikia eiti.

I need to go.

Advice:

Turėčiau eiti.

I should go.

Permission:

Galiu eiti.

I may go.

Prohibition:

Negalima eiti.

One may not go.

Desire:

Noriu eiti.

I want to go.

Intention:

Ketinu eiti.

I intend to go.

These distinctions allow Lithuanian to express very precise shades of necessity, possibility, intention, and willingness.

Lithuanian modal grammar therefore combines ordinary conjugated verbs with highly productive impersonal constructions. Galėti expresses possibility and ability, turėti ordinary obligation, privalėti stronger duty, norėti desire, and mokėti acquired skill. Impersonal forms such as reikia, galima, negalima, būtina, and reikėtų add important distinctions involving necessity, permission, prohibition, and advice. Because the lexical verb normally remains in the infinitive, these constructions are structurally straightforward once the meanings and government patterns of the modal element are understood.

Conjunctions in Lithuanian

Lithuanian conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and complete ideas. They show relationships such as addition, contrast, choice, cause, consequence, condition, time, purpose, comparison, and concession. Conjunctions are invariable: they do not change according to gender, number, person, or case.

Some conjunctions connect grammatical elements of equal status. These are coordinating conjunctions.

Jonas ir Marija dirba kartu.

Jonas and Marija work together.

Other conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses that depend grammatically or semantically on another clause. These are subordinating conjunctions.

Žinau, kad jis ateis.

I know that he will come.

A third important group consists of paired or correlative conjunctions, such as structures meaning “either … or,” “neither … nor,” and “not only … but also.”

ir — and

The conjunction ir is one of the most frequent Lithuanian words. Its primary function is to connect words, phrases, or clauses with an additive meaning.

Jonas ir Marija

Jonas and Marija

duona ir sūris

bread and cheese

didelis ir gražus namas

a large and beautiful house

It can also connect complete clauses.

Jonas dirba, ir Marija studijuoja.

Jonas works, and Marija studies.

In shorter combinations, a comma is normally unnecessary.

Perku obuolius ir kriaušes.

I am buying apples and pears.

When two complete clauses are joined, punctuation depends on their structure and relationship.

Repeated ir

ir can be repeated for emphasis.

Jis ir skaito, ir rašo.

He both reads and writes.

Ji moka ir angliškai, ir lietuviškai.

She knows both English and Lithuanian.

The repetition emphasizes that both alternatives or qualities apply.

taip pat — also

Although taip pat is not a simple conjunction in the narrowest grammatical sense, it frequently performs an additive linking function.

Ji kalba lietuviškai ir taip pat moka lenkiškai.

She speaks Lithuanian and also knows Polish.

It can connect ideas while emphasizing addition.

bei — and; as well as

The conjunction bei is another additive connector. It is common in formal, written, administrative, and carefully structured language.

Sveikata bei švietimas yra svarbios sritys.

Health and education are important fields.

Įmonė teikia konsultavimo bei mokymo paslaugas.

The company provides consulting and training services.

In many contexts, bei is stylistically more formal than ordinary ir.

o — and; but; whereas

The conjunction o is extremely important because it can express contrast, comparison, or a change of topic. It often corresponds to “and,” “but,” or “whereas,” depending on context.

Aš dirbu Vilniuje, o ji dirba Kaune.

I work in Vilnius, while she works in Kaunas.

Jonas mėgsta kavą, o Marija mėgsta arbatą.

Jonas likes coffee, whereas Marija likes tea.

Here o contrasts two parallel facts.

It can also introduce a contrasting correction.

Jis ne gydytojas, o mokytojas.

He is not a doctor but a teacher.

This ne … o … structure is particularly common.

Conjunctions in Lists

When three or more items are coordinated, ir normally appears before the final item.

Pirkau duonos, pieno, sūrio ir vaisių.

I bought bread, milk, cheese, and fruit.

In a short list, commas separate the earlier items.

Repeated Coordination for Emphasis

Repetition can give rhythm or emphasis.

Ir vaikai, ir suaugusieji dalyvavo renginyje.

Both children and adults participated in the event.

Nei lietus, nei vėjas mūsų nesustabdė.

Neither rain nor wind stopped us.

Arba einame dabar, arba neiname visai.

Either we go now or we do not go at all.

Connecting Opposite Ideas

Several conjunctions can express opposition with different nuances.

bet

but

o

whereas; but

tačiau

however

vis dėlto

nevertheless

Compare:

Jis jaunas, bet labai patyręs.

He is young but very experienced.

Jis dirba Vilniuje, o jo brolis Kaune.

He works in Vilnius, while his brother works in Kaunas.

Situacija sudėtinga, tačiau sprendimą rasime.

The situation is complicated; however, we will find a solution.

Connecting Reasons and Results

Cause:

nes

because

kadangi

since; because

Result:

todėl

therefore

taigi

thus

Examples:

Negalėjome išvykti, nes snigo.

We could not leave because it was snowing.

Kadangi snigo, likome namuose.

Since it was snowing, we stayed at home.

Snigo, todėl likome namuose.

It was snowing, so we stayed at home.

Connecting Conditions

The most important conditional connectors are:

jei

if

jeigu

if

nebent

unless

Examples:

Jei nori, gali pasilikti.

If you want, you can stay.

Jeigu bus šilta, eisime pasivaikščioti.

If it is warm, we will go for a walk.

Ateisiu, nebent susirgsiu.

I will come unless I become ill.

Connecting Time

Important temporal connectors include:

kai

when

kol

while; until

kai tik

as soon as

po to, kai

after

prieš tai, kai

before

Examples:

Kai ateisi, paskambink.

When you come, call me.

Lauksiu, kol baigsi.

I will wait until you finish.

Kai tik gausiu žinią, pranešiu tau.

As soon as I receive the news, I will tell you.